History of Psychology

<body topmargin=0 leftmargin=0 marginheight=0 marginwidth=0> <table cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0 border=0><tr> <td valign="top" colspan=2 height=140 BGCOLOR="#9966CC" TEXT="#080000" bgproperties="fixed" background="04100a20ezthtv.gif"> <div> <A HREF="index.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Kings Psychology Network"><U><B>home</B></U></A><B>     |     </B><FONT SIZE="5" COLOR="#000099" FACE="Papyrus" ><I><B>King's Psychology Network</B></I></FONT></div> <div> <A HREF="id32.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Lessons Handouts"><U>Lessons & Handouts</U></A>   |   <A HREF="id154.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Download able Adobe PDF Handouts"><U>Download able  Adobe PDF Handouts</U></A>   |   <A HREF="id239.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Assignments for Psychology 201 Classes"><U>Assignments for Psychology 201 Classes</U></A>   |   <A HREF="id240.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Assignments for Psychology 202 Classes"><U>Assignments for Psychology 202 Classes</U></A>   |   <A HREF="id258.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="ExaminationsPsy 201"><U>Examinations-Psy 201</U></A>   |   <A HREF="id254.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="ExaminationsPsy 202"><U>Examinations-Psy 202</U></A>   |   <A HREF="id29.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Overview of Psychology"><U>Overview of Psychology</U></A>   |   <B>History of Psychology</B>   |   <A HREF="id46.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Psychohistory: St. Thomas Aquinas"><U>Psychohistory: St. Thomas Aquinas</U></A>   |   <A HREF="id36.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="The Enteric Nervous System: The Brain in"><U>The Enteric Nervous System: The Brain in the Gut</U></A>   |   <A HREF="id42.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="The Role of Evolutionary Theory in Descr"><U>The Role of Evolutionary Theory in Describing Sexual Behavior</U></A>   |   <A HREF="id177.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Work Motivation"><U>Work Motivation</U></A>   |   <A HREF="id178.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="EmotionExercise Physical Arousal"><U>Emotion-Exercise & Physical Arousal</U></A>   |   <A HREF="id201.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Meditation"><U>Meditation</U></A>   |   <A HREF="id210.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Animal Cognition"><U>Animal Cognition</U></A>   |   <A HREF="id224.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="WaterBenefits Effects"><U>Water-Benefits & Effects</U></A></div> <div> <B>History of Psychology</B></div> <DIV ALIGN="LEFT"></DIV> <div> </div> </td> </tr><tr> <td valign="top" width=210 BGCOLOR="#CCFF66" TEXT="#080000"> <div> <B>History & Evolution of Psychology</B></div> <bR> <div> <B>I.  Ancient Egypt </B></div> <div> <B>(664-554 BC)</B></div> <bR> <div> <B>II. Ancient Greece </B></div> <div> <B>(500BC-300BC)</B></div> <bR> <div> <B>III. Graeco-Roman Period</B></div> <div> <B>(100BC-500AD)</B></div> <bR> <div> <B>IV.  Hellenistic and Roman Periods </B></div> <div> <B>(300-100BC & 100BC-500AD)</B></div> <bR> <div> <B>V.  The Patristic Period (200AD-500AD)</B></div> <bR> <div> <B>VI.  The Middle Ages</B></div> <div> <B>(500AD-900AD)</B></div> <bR> <div> <B>VII. The Renaissance</B></div> <div> <B>(1450-1600 AD)</B></div> <bR> <div> <B>VIII. Modern Period</B></div> <div> <B>(16th-17th Century)</B></div> <bR> <div> <B>IX. British Empiricism</B></div> <div> <B>(17th & 18th Century)</B></div> <bR> <div> <B>X.  Experimental Psychology</B></div> <div> <B>(1800s to 1870s)</B></div> <bR> <div> <B>XI. French Psychology</B></div> <div> <B>(Late 18th to Early 19th Century)</B></div> <bR> <div> <B>XII. Functionalism </B></div> <div> <B>(19th Century</B><FONT SIZE="2" COLOR="#0000BF" FACE="Arial" ><B>)</B></FONT></div> <bR> <div> <A HREF="id19_m.htm#related_learning_links" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="History of Psychology"><U><B>Related Links</B></U></A></div> </td> <td valign="top" height=340 BGCOLOR="#CCFF66" TEXT="#080000"> <div> <B>History of Psychology</B></div> <bR> <div> <B>Major Periods in World History Relative to the Evolution of the Field of Psychology</B></div> <bR> <div> <B><IMG SRC="84c0e5e0.jpg" border=0 width="270" height="350" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></B></div> <div> Developed by psychology students--A. Jacobsen, R. Zartman, & H. Ashfaq</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Psychology evolved from philosophy, science, medicine and theology. Psychology evolved out of a coalescence of natural science and the branch of philosophy known as epistemology or the theory of knowledge.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">In the beginning, psychology was a 3-way synthesis of physics, physiology and mental philosophy.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">The roots of psychology go back to Egypt and the Egyptian mystery system.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Early psychology focused on measuring and understanding the mind.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Later psychology focused on measuring and understanding behavior.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Observation and interpretation of data were the business of the philosopher.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Beginning with the Ancient Greeks, philosophers learned a great deal about the world around them, and attempted to arrange their learning in an orderly way, and speculated on its meaning.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">As philosophers increased their knowledge, they developed specialties within the field of philosophy.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Psychology was housed under philosophy as <I><B>"Mental Philosophy" </B></I>which was concerned with psychological principles. The other specialties under philosophy were<I><B> "Natural Philosophy"</B></I> which dealt with the areas of physics, chemistry and the natural sciences; and <I><B>"Moral Philosophy"</B></I> which dealt with the social sciences and ethical considerations.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Once you become familiar with the history of psychology, you will see that psychology and knowledge in general has evolved as man has evolved -- both in consciousness and intellect or knowledge.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Psychology did not become an independent discipline separate from philosophy until the late 19th century.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">The search for knowledge was the quest of the early philosopher scientists -- the desire to know. Psychology was interwoven in early science and philosophy.</div> <bR> <bR> <div> <B>I. ANCIENT EGYPT (664BC-554BC)</B></div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Egypt was known for its Egyptian Mystery System or set of secret doctrines, since knowledge was power in those days. Only the privileged few had access to knowledge and they kept this knowledge secret and passed most of it on in secret societies.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">  The Egyptians are also reported to have been prolific writers, but few knew how to translate their writing system of hieroglyphics and Coptic. It has only been in recent decades that Egyptologists are able to understand the early writings.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"> A great philosophical text developed by an Egyptian scholar is <I><B>The Kybalion - </B></I><I>written by</I><I><B> </B></I><I><B>Hermes Trismegistus. </B></I><I> It is considered the Hermetic philosophy of ancient Egypt and Greece. Trismegistus was  known as the </I><I><B>"scribe of the gods." </B></I><I>He was also known as the father of the occult wisdom, the founder of astrology and the discoverer of alchemy.</I> The Egyptians deified Hermes, and made him one of their gods, under the name of Thoth.  Years later, the people of Ancient Greece also made him one of their many gods, calling him <I><B>"Hermes, the god of Wisdom."</B></I></div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">The earliest scientific knowledge came from the Egyptians-although there exists almost no written records of their scientific contributions, until recently with the work and study of Egyptologists and their success at understanding hieroglyphics, the ancient writing system of the Egyptians, along with Coptic writing. In most philosophy and history of psychology textbooks, you will see credit being given solely to the Greeks.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Three such works that document through careful research and study the contributions of Egyptians to science and philosophy are:</div> <bR> <div>       1.  <I><B>Stolen Legacy</B></I> by George G.M. James (1954). San Francisco: Julian Richardson Associates.</div> <bR> <div>       2. <I><B> From Ancient Africa to Ancient Greece: An Introduction to the History of Philosophy </B></I>by Dr. Henry Olela (1981).</div> <div>            Atlanta, GA: The Select Publishing Corporation.</div> <bR> <div>       3. <I> </I><I><B>Black Athena: The Afroasiatic Roots of Classical Civilization (The Fabrication of Ancient Greece-1785-1985, </B></I></div> <div> <I><B>           Volume  1</B></I><B>),</B> by Martin Bernal (1987). New Jersey: Rutgers University Press.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">According to the first two scholars, there is evidence that Egyptians laid the foundation for scientific knowledge.  Further, they indicate that much of Greek knowledge was borrowed from Egypt; especially after the conquest of Egypt by Alexander the Great, and the seizure and looting of the Royal Library at Alexandria.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">According to Bernal (1987), Greece had a distinctive and mixed culture, with much learned and practiced from the Egyptians; and many lived in Greece with Egyptian ancestry.  The Greek religion also is reported to have a largely Egyptian base.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Further, it is known, that many of the early Greek philosophers studied in Egypt and brought back interpretations of their knowledge to Greece.  Namely, Thales, (a physicist) who was the first to go into Egypt and bring back scientific knowledge into Greece.  Also, Pythagoras, a pupil of Thales studied in Egypt and Babylon.   Pythagoras was a musician and mathematician.  He studied for 34 years.  Pythagoras like Euclid developed what is known as the Pythagorean Theorem -- first formulated by Thales.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Therefore, the history of psychology begins with  ancient Egypt.</div> <bR> <div> <B>II. ANCIENT GREEK PERIOD (500BC-300BC)</B></div> <div> <B><IMG SRC="742bc340.jpg" border=0 width="188" height="308" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"><IMG SRC="744bc340.jpg" border=0 width="188" height="308" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"><IMG SRC="746bc350.jpg" border=0 width="188" height="309" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"><IMG SRC="748bc340.jpg" border=0 width="188" height="308" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></B></div> <div> <B><IMG SRC="74abc470.jpg" border=0 width="188" height="327" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"><IMG SRC="74cbc470.jpg" border=0 width="188" height="327" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"><IMG SRC="74ebc4b0.jpg" border=0 width="188" height="331" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></B></div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">In Greek mythology there were four Ages of Man: The Golden, Silver, Bronze, and Iron (or Heroic) ages.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">The Gods and Goddesses were: Poseidon (Sea); Apollo (Sun); Hera & Zeus (Heaven); Athene (Wisdom); Hermes (Messenger); Artemis (Hunting); and, Aphrodite (Love).</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">The early Greeks had a tremendous confidence in their superior ability for reasoning.They also used naturalistic observations to derive at theories and hypotheses.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Their reasoning was called<I> rationalism</I> - the search for the essence of things. (Now known as the deductive method). They saw the world as a <I><B>macrocosm</B></I> and man as a <I><B>microcosm</B></I>.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Among scientists contributing to psychology were:</div> <bR> <div> -<I><B>Heraclitus </B></I>- sought to discover the nature of knowledge, the essence of things;</div> <bR> <div> -<I><B>Thales </B></I>- nature of matter; </div> <bR> <div> <B>-Pythagoras </B>was a pupil of Thales. He developed the label "philosopher" and was the first to call himself a philosoper--lover of knowledge. He was a mathematician and philsopher and born on the Island of Samos.  He died in southern Italy, then called Magna Graecia.  Pythagoras was the son of a jeweller named Mnesarchus and his beautiful wife Pythais.  He is said to have been the first to call himself a philosopher, i.e., lover of knowledge.  It happended one day, when Leon, tyrant of Phlious, asked Pythagoras who he was and what he did for a living.  He answered: "I am a philosopher," thereby coining the word.</div> <bR> <div> -<I><B>Democritus</B></I> - atomism;Being is as existent as non-being. Being is indivisible matter, the atom which cannot be split.  Many atoms exist which are interconnected in various ways, obeying purely mechanical laws and forming miscellaneious beings that are known to us.  Even though his theory about the individibility of the atom as today been disporoved.  Democritus's notion of the universe laid the foundation for progress in scientific research. He said:<B> </B><I><B>"similarity creates friendship."</B></I></div> <bR> <div> <I><B>-Alcmaeon</B></I> - 2 aspect theory of the soul;</div> <bR> <div> <I><B>-Hippocrates</B></I> - ancient medicine; developed the Hippocratic oath to care for his patients which is still sworn by doctors today.</div> <bR> <div> <I><B>-Socrates </B></I>-Induction;  One of the greatest thinkers and philosophers of antiquity.  He devoted his life and work to moral philosophy and to the search for moral good, virtue and justice.  The main method he used was dialectics (the method of seeking knowledge by question and answer) by which he tried to teach men how ignorant they were and to help them know themselves.  His contribution to philosophy was highly significant, especially because in Socrates, it is not the heavenly bodies, earth, clouds, etc., that were of value but the universe of the human soul. He was found guilty, and sentenced to death, by a jury of his Athenian peers for corrupting the young and not acknowledging the gods of the city.</div> <bR> <div> <I><B>-Plato -</B></I> Wrote the<I><B> Republic.</B></I> <I><B>Duality of the Psyche</B></I>; Was author of some 31 philosophical dialogues, and founder, in 387, of the Academy, in Athens. He was considered one of the most significant thinkers of antiquity.  Plato, despite his aristocratic origin and his parents' plans for his political or petic career, devoted his life to philosophy, first as a devoted pupil of Socrates, and later by founding his own school of philosophy, the Academy.  Plato held far-reaching views on the creation of the world, which have been preserved in the dialogue<B> </B><I><B>Timaeus,</B></I> while his work the <I><B>Republic</B></I>, is perhaps the world's most important politican science text.</div> <bR> <div> <I><B>-Aristotle</B></I> - De Anima, first book to treat psychology as a systematic philosophy. Notions about the psyche. Founded philosophical psychology; Studied with Plato 20 years.  After Plato's nephew, Speusippus, is named the head of the Academy, Aristotle leaves Athens, but later returns, to found his own school, the Lyceum, in 335 BC.  Although he, too, wrote philosophical dialogues, only a few fragments have come down to us.  His surviving writings exist in the form of treatises. Was considered the father of modern scientific thought, he was also Alexander's tutor.</div> <bR> <div> <I><B>Aristotle</B></I> was the greatest systematic philosopher of antiquity.  He was the first to philosophise on the basis of science.  Because of his great knowledge, especially in the physical sciences, he became known in history as a "panepistimon" or man of all sciences.  Aristotle developed the dialectical method in logic, not in the Socratic sense of the dialogue but as a process consisting of thesis, antithesis and synthesis, which then becomes the new thesis.</div> <bR> <div> <I><B>-Theophrastus</B></I> - study of botany, treatise on physiological psychology (on the senses), a collection of personality sketches (characters);</div> <bR> <div> <I><B>-Galen </B></I>- influenced medicine with theory of humors. Was a practitioner. Integrated anatomy and physiology.</div> <bR> <div> <I><B>-Homer</B></I>-(applied psychology). "Nothing is sweeter than home." The greatest of the epic poets. A psycho-historian.  Wrote  two great epic masterpieces, the Iliad and the Odyssey. </div> <bR> <div> <I><B>-Sophocles</B></I>- "Tis not my nature to join in hating, but in loving." A major tragic poet of the 5th century BC. The Athenian audiences responded enthusiastically to his emergence as his work was animated by serenity and was therefore most appropriate to meet the requirements of an audience enjoying the triumphs of Athens. He brought about many innovations in the art of dramaturgy.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">The Greeks regarded the soul as the source of consciousness and life.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">They developed a 2-aspect theory of the soul: 1) <I><B>Thymos </B></I>- aspect involved in thought and emotion and perishes with the body; and 2)<I><B> Psyche</B></I> - aspect considered immortal. Psychology was derived from this aspect.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Early scientific and philosophical thought was primarily qualitative.  Quantitative analyses were scarce--Thales, Euclid and Pythagoras.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Reason and observation, unaided by instruments, were the methods by which the majority of the first scientific knowledge was derived.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Two branches of Greek thought then contributed to the development of modern science: Cosmology and rationalism.</div> <bR> <div>        a)       Cosmology = the study of the universe or cosmos --- how it originated, its structure and evolution. </div> <div>                  (Major contributor-- Democritus (460-370 BC) postulated the atomic theory of the universe).</div> <bR> <div>         b)      Rationalists = used reason.  Now known as the deductive method or the hypothetico-deductive methods, </div> <div>                  by means of which scientists attempt to postulate a rational set of assumptions to be tested by experiment.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">In summary, the Greeks recognized the significance of what has become four important stages in the scientific method:</div> <bR> <div>       a)        naturalistic observation;</div> <bR> <div>        b)       Analysis and classification of natural phenomena into meaningful descriptive categories.</div> <bR> <div>        c)        Formulation of hypotheses of cause and effect on the basis of such analyses and</div> <bR> <div>        d)       Value of quantitative methods (Euclid and Pythagoras).</div> <div>    </div> <bR> <bR> <div> <B>III. GRAECO-ROMAN PERIOD (100BC-500AD)</B></div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Wisdom for the conduct of life.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Knowledge derived from the Greeks.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Increased separation of science and philosophy.</div> <bR> <bR> <div> <B>IV. HELLENISTIC AND ROMAN PERIODS (300-100 BC & 100BC-500AD)</B></div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Progress made by men who stood in the shadow of Aristotle, e.g., Theophrastus (372 BC-) and Galen.  Psychology was most advanced by Theophrastus.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">The Hellenistic period is often referred to as the twilight of Greek thinking.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">It is also the period in which a decline in intellectualism began in the Mediterranean and Alexandria.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Psychology  is still a branch of philosophy.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Greek science extended over a period of 800 years.  It began with the earliest philosopher/scientists of the sixth century BC and continued to the 2nd or 3rd century of the Christian era.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Some of Aristotle's students begin to make significant contributions to psychology (e.g., <I><B>Theophrastus</B></I>).</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Greek scientific thought transmitted to the Arabs.</div> <bR> <bR> <div> <B>V. THE PATRISTIC PERIOD (200AD-500AD)</B></div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Known as the period of the church fathers--and devoted to the formation of Christian Orthodoxy.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Influentials included Origen, Plotinus, and St. Augustine....</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">The church and Christianity influenced psychology - especially the teachings of Jesus as taught to theologians by <I><B>Origen.</B></I> [Origen was one of the intellectual theologians and leaders of the church. He believed that philosophy and science are compatible with the church.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Period focused on dualism of mind and body and supernaturalism -- or that which was beyond nature. Supernaturalism led a preoccupation with the world to come rather than the world as it exists.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"> Important contributors include:</div> <bR> <div> <I><B>-Plotinus </B></I>- an Egyptian, who moved to Rome. He talked about a mystical reunion with the world soul and development of the individual toward perfection.</div> <bR> <div> <I><B>-Augustine</B></I> - Addressed unity and conflict. He was consulted on all psychological matters. He believed that a major source of knowledge of self was by means of reflection, a form of meditation by which we can come to know our soul. Augustine believed that miracles are simply unusual occurrences and require no more and no less explanation than any other event. If they were not rare, they would not cause surprise.</div> <bR> <div> <B>VI. THE MIDDLE AGES (500AD-900AD)</B></div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">The early part of the period was referred to as the Dark Ages due to the halt of scientific advancement, misgovernment, civil wars, barbarian people, discord, and the dismantling of the monetary system.  There was top heavy bureaucracies, civil wars, and barbarian peoples in some areas. The uniformity of Roman law gave way to a maze of discordant local customs.  The universal monetary system of the Romans also disappeared.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">There were chaotic systems of government and low standards of living.  Also, there was widespread illiteracy.  Science and culture suffered during this period.  In some areas religious scholarship survived.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">There were no psychological advance made during this period; and very little interest in  Psychology. The works of Aristotle and Plato were even lost.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Islam was developed during this period. Islam means "surrender to God." The followers were known as Muslims. Sicily and Spain came under the domination of Islam.  Hellenic civilization also merged into Muslim culture. </div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">The birth of Islam and the Muslim faith occurred in the middle part of the Middle Ages. Muslims assumed positions of leadership in government, the military and religious affairs.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Universities did not come into real prominence until the 13th century. They came into being with the expansion of knowledge. For example, youth in the 11th century entered monasteries; youth in the 13th century attended universities.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Universities began to emerge toward the latter part of the Middle Ages -- <B>the University of Bologna, University of Paris, Oxford and Cambridge Universities.</B> The curricula included art, natural ethics, philosophy, metaphysics, theology, law and medicine.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">During this period, Arabic scholars also had added valuable observations in medicine and had added a variety of new perspectives to philosophy.  </div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Translations included religious, philosophical, medical, science -- such as optics, geology and math.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Introduction of these texts and translations divided the middle ages into what can be known as 2 distinct periods:  a)  the early middle ages, without the benefits and knowledge and b)  the later, middle ages, with ancient knowledge and science restored.</div> <bR> <div> <I><B><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">St. Thomas Aquinas </B></I>wrote the <A HREF="id32.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Lessons Handouts"><U>"</U></A><A HREF="id32.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Lessons Handouts"><U>Summa Contra Theologica</U></A><A HREF="id32.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Lessons Handouts"><U>"</U></A>, an introduction to Christian theology. (Click on the hyper link or go to lessons above to find an overview of the life and works of Aquinas). He was also author of commentaries on Aristotle and various books of the Bible.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">A reawakening of knowledge occurred in the late middle ages.</div> <bR> <div> <B>VII. THE RENAISSANCE (1450-1800 AD)</B></div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">A period of general and literary enrichment. Also called the Age of Reason.  This period was a scientific and philosophical movement which started in France and took hold in Britain and Germany.  Its new ideas about human progress through science and reason strongly influenced the revolutionary leaders in America and France. </div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"> Called the <I>"Enlightenment," </I>or Age of Reason. Was a scientific and philosophical movement which started in France and took hold in Britain and Germany. Its new ideas about human progress through science and reason strongly influenced the revolutionary leaders in America and France.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Scientists of the Enlightenment were very keen to find out about the world, nature, chemistry, and physics.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Renaissance men were discovering ancient geography through translations of ancient manuscripts.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">There was development of a new education with a new curriculum.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">The field of psychology was broadened.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Voyages and discoveries of the world took place (<I><B>Columbus, Diaz, daGama</B></I>, and, <I><B>the captains of Prince Henry the Navigator</B></I>). The world was enlarged.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">This period included such scholars as: <I><B>Leonardo da Vinci -</B></I>- an artist, engineer and geologist, painted the famous <I>Madonna & Child</I>;<I><B> Linnaeus </B></I>-founded modern botany and zoology and classified plants and animals into groups;<I><B> Lavoisier</B></I> - proved that air consists of oxygen and nitrogen and also made the first table of chemical elements; <I><B>Benjamin Franklin</B></I> was both a statesman and a man of science. He studied electricity and  used a key on a kite string to act as a lightning conductor; he also invented a stove and bifocal glasses;<I><B> Mozart</B></I> was a child genius and the most brilliant composer of his day.<I> </I><I><B>Scheele</B></I><I> </I>discovered oxygen; <I><B>Cavendish</B></I> discovered h;ydrogen; <I><B>Rutherford</B></I> discovered nitrogen; <I><B>Fahrenheit</B></I><I> </I>invented a mercury thermometer, Celsius invented a centigrade thermometer; <I><B>Luigi Galvani</B></I> discovered contact electricity. Also the French Montgolfier brothers made the first ascent in a hot-air balloon.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">The Romantic movement followed the Enlightenment, and it affected revolutionary politics in Europe as well as its arts.  Two leading figures in the movement were the composer Beethoven and Goethe, the poet.</div> <bR> <div> <I><B><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Descartes</B></I> made significant contributions bordering the Renaissance period and the modern period.  He decided that the point of interchange between the mind and body is the<B> pineal gland,</B> located at the base of the cerebrum. He also described in detail, the nervous system and was considered the father of modern philosophy by existentialists. Descartes also was considered a leader in the development of mathematics, and lad the foundation for analytic geometry and contributed to modern algebra. Was author of: <I><B>The Discourse on the Method of Righlty Conducting One's Reason;</B></I> <I><B>Searching Truth in the Sciences</B></I>; and the<I><B> Meditations on First Philosophy.</B></I></div> <bR> <div> <B>VIII. MODERN PERIOD (16TH-17TH Century)</B></div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">The emphasis was on methodology, science and mathematics. Also know as the "Scientific Revolution."</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Influential scientists included<I><B> Francis Bacon, Galileo, Sir Isaac Newton, William Harvey, Napier. </B></I></div> <bR> <div> <I><B><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"> Francis Bacon</B></I> was one of the first men to study nature by using scientific observation. Developed an empirical methodology and inductive reasoning. It is reported that he translated the first King James version of the Bible and was the true writer of Shakespeare and other Elizabethan literature. Was considered the first English essayist. It is also reported that he secretly laid the groundwork for the establishment of the United States of America.</div> <bR> <div>       -In his works<I><B> Novum Organum</B></I>, <I><B>Advancement of Learning,</B></I> and <I><B>New Atlantis,</B></I> Bacon outlined his views of what </div> <div>        science should become.  He proposed drastic changes in scientific procedure.</div> <bR> <div>       -He died from a chill after stuffing a fowl with snow.  He was studying refrigeration.</div> <bR> <div> <I><B><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Galileo</B></I> was the first to turn a telescope to the skies to map the galaxy. He provided evidence that the earth was not the fixed center of the universe, but that it and all the other planets revolved around the sun.</div> <div> <I><B>Galileo </B></I>also observed the moon's "seas" and mountains, the planets and the stars of the Milky Way. His studies included the laws of "falling bodies" using experiments and mathematics. He studied the pendulum and designed a clock.</div> <bR> <div> <I><B><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">William Harvey</B></I> conducted experiments and microscopic observations that proved that the blood circulates around the body.</div> <bR> <div> <I><B><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Isaac Newton,</B></I> laid the foundations of modern science. He worked on mathematical calculus, light and gravity and invented his own reflecting telescope. He worked out laws on gravity and how things move, using observation and mathematics. He found out that white light was made up of a rainbow, or "spectrum," of colored light.</div> <bR> <div> <I><B><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Napier,</B></I> a Scottish mathematician invented logarithms. He invented a calculating system using rods of bone.</div> <bR> <bR> <bR> <div> <B>IX. BRITISH EMPIRICISM (17th & 18th Century)</B></div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Empiricism became a viable alternative to rationalism. Focused primarily on associationism - the ways in which mental events are connected. </div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">They accepted the Baconian proposition that science must start from observations that are collected carefully and from which cautious generalizations are made.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Empiricism places the origin of mind in sensation and explains the higher mental processes such as memory, thinking and imagination as complexes of persistent impressions held together by associations.  Associations exist due to certain conditions that were present at the time of the impression such as repetition and contiguity.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">They believed that mind is built from sensory experiences (sense); these experiences provide elemental ideas or memories which come together to form complex ideas by virtue of association.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Thus the field of psychology was becoming more empirical and moving away from rationalism during the British empirical system.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Some noted scientists included:</div> <div>       -- <I><B>Thomas Hobbes- 1588-1679- first British empiricist.  </B></I>He explained memory and imagination as decaying </div> <div>          sense impressions held together by association; </div> <bR> <div> <I><B>      </B></I>--<I><B> John Locke- 1632-1704 - </B></I>extended Hobbes principles, developed the first completely worked out empirical theory</div> <div>          of knowledge and Tabula Rasa - the mind is blank at birth; </div> <bR> <div> <I><B>      </B></I>-- <I><B>George Berkeley-1685-1753- </B></I>talked about<I><B> </B></I>mentalism, that mental aspects of life are paramount and that only reality is</div> <div>           mind. He developed a theory of vision and depth and space perception; </div> <bR> <div>       -- <I><B>David Hume (1711-1776)</B></I> - the mind is only a name given to the flow of ideas, memories, imagination and </div> <div>          feelings. Published <B>Treatise on Human Nature </B>and <B>An Inquiry Concerning Human Understanding;</B></div> <div>     </div> <div> <I><B>      </B></I>-- <I><B>David Hartley- 1705-1757 - Considered </B></I>physiology and psychology to be associational. Published <B>Observations of</B></div> <div> <B>         Man </B>in 1749 and believed in tabula rasa-the mind is blank at birth; </div> <bR> <div>        --<I><B>James and John Stuart Mills </B></I> (sensation and ideas are primary material of the mind).</div> <bR> <div>        --<I><B>James Mills (1773-1836)</B></I>- considered the greatest associationist; believed that sensations and ideas are primary material</div> <div>            of the  mind; wrote <B>Analysis of the Phenomena of the Human Mind</B>.</div> <bR> <div>          --<I><B>John Stuart Mills (1806-1873)</B></I><B> </B>- wrote Logic; believed that the "whole is more than the sum of its parts." "Elements</div> <div>            may generate complex ideas, but the ideas generated are not merely the sum of the individual parts."</div> <bR> <div> <B>X. EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (1800s TO 1870s)</B></div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Advanced initially by German psychologists (Wundt and others).</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">They believed that an experiment was a way of testing a theory. Instead of passively observing nature, experimenters actively interfere in natural phenomena. The goal of an experiment is to put nature to question.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">During this period great strides were being made in the understanding of the nervous system.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Physiologists were moving closer to psychology.  This was the beginning of the development of physiological psychology.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Physiology became an experimental discipline in the 1830s. Physiology emerging in the 19th century influenced psychologists to turn their attention to searching for neural mechanisms underlying behavior.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">This was the beginning of the development of neurology and brain functioning.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">This was the beginning of the development of psychophysics.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Many of the Americans interested in psychology studied in Germany with the German psychologists; among them William James and Edward Titchener.</div> <bR> <div> <B>XI. FRENCH PSYCHOLOGY (Late 18th to Early 19th Century)</B></div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Advanced the study of Psychopathology and Intelligence.  Just before the beginning of the 19th century, France became the first country to begin to develop adequate care for the insane and the feeble-minded.  French psychologists focused on psychopathological behavior. Contributed to the development of pathological psychology.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Included scientists such as: </div> <bR> <div>       --Jean<I><B> Itard</B></I> - 1775-1838- began work with the feebleminded. Was the pioneer in the systematic study of mental deficiency;<I><B> </B></I></div> <bR> <div> <I><B>      </B></I>--<I><B>Franz Anton Mesmer (1734-1815) - began work on </B></I>mesmerism or "animal magnetism"-now hypnosis); </div> <bR> <div> <I><B>      </B></I>--<I><B>Jean Charcot</B></I>  (1825-1893) - often referred to as the father of neurology; Freud was a pupil of Charcot and lived and</div> <div>         studied with him in France for a while;</div> <bR> <div>       --<I><B>Alfred Binet</B></I><I> -</I> studied intelligence and constructed the first intelligence test.</div> <bR> <div> <B>XII. FUNCTIONALISM IN AMERICA (19th Century)</B></div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Considered the first truly American system of psychology.</div> <bR> <div> <I><B><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">William James</B></I> called the founder of modern psychology. Developed a functional psychology which included the study of consciousness. Was considered the leading American forerunner of functionalism, with his 2-volume work, <B>The Principles of Psychology,</B> (1890).  His functional psychology included the study of consciousness as an ongoing process or stream.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">The focus was on the study of mind and the function of thought. Functionalism's primary interest was the study of mind as it functions in adapting the organism to its environment.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f099006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Today's psychology is said to be functionalistic because of its emphasis on learning, intelligence, testing, perception and other functional processes.</div> <bR> <DIV ALIGN="LEFT"></DIV> <div> <B>[Revised 1-06]</B></div> <bR> <div> <B><U>References</U></B></div> <bR> <div>             Bernal, Martin (1987). <B> Black Athena:  The Afroasiatic Roots of Classical Civilization (The Fabrication of Ancient Greece-1785-1985, Volume 1).</B> New Jersey:</div> <div>             Rutgers  University Press.</div> <bR> <div>            James, George G. M. (1954). <B> Stolen Legacy.</B>  San Francisco: Julian Richardson Associates.</div> <bR> <div> <I><B>           </B></I><I>Olela, Henry (1981). </I><B> From Ancient Africa to Ancient Greece: An Introduction to the History of Philosophy. </B><I><B> </B></I>Atlanta, GA: The Select Publishing Corporation.</div> <div>           </div> <div>             Watson, Robert I. and Rand B. Evans. (1991). <I><B>The Great Psychologists: A History of Psychological Thought.</B></I> Harper Collins Publishers.</div> <bR> <DIV ALIGN="LEFT"></DIV> <div> _____________</div> <bR> <div> <B><U> <A NAME="related_learning_links"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></U></B><B><U>RELATED LEARNING LINKS</U></B></div> <bR> <div> <A HREF="http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/GREECE/ARIST.HTM" TARGET="_top" TITLE="http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/GREECE/ARIST.HTM"><U><B><U>Aristotle</U></B></U></A></div> <div> On his life and works.</div> <bR> <div> <A HREF="http://education.yahoo.com/homework_help/cliffsnotes/aristotles_ethics" TARGET="_top" TITLE="http://education.yahoo.com/homework_help"><U><B>Aristotle-Ethics</B></U></A></div> <div> An online Cliffs Notes detailing Aristotle's book on ethics.</div> <bR> <div> <A HREF="http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/dreams.html" TARGET="_top" TITLE="http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/dreams"><U><B><U>Aristotle-On Dreams</U></B></U></A></div> <div> Written in 350 B.C.E. and translated by J. I. Beare</div> <bR> <div> <A HREF="http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/GREECE/GREPHIL.HTM" TARGET="_top" TITLE="http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/GREECE/GREPHIL.H"><U><B><U>Aristotle-The Doctrine of the Mean</U></B></U></A></div> <div> Writings of Aristotle on  Nicomachean Ethics.</div> <bR> <div> <A HREF="http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/GREECE/4CAUSES.HTM" TARGET="_top" TITLE="http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/GREECE/4CAUSES.H"><U><B><U>Aristotle-The Four Causes</U></B></U></A></div> <div> On Physics.</div> <bR> <div> <A HREF="http://www.psych.yorku.ca/orgs/resource.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="http://www.psych.yorku.ca/orgs/resource."><U><B>History and Philosophy of Psychology</B></U></A></div> <div> Many resources on the history and philosophy of psychology.</div> <bR> <div> <A HREF="http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/GREECE/PLATO.HTM" TARGET="_top" TITLE="http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/GREECE/PLATO.HTM"><U><B><U>Plato</U></B></U></A><B><U> and the Republic</U></B></div> <div> On the teachings of Plato.</div> <bR> <div> <A HREF="http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/GREECE/ALLEGORY.HTM#A" TARGET="_top" TITLE="http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/GREECE/ALLEGORY."><U><B><U>Plato: The Allegory of the Cave-The Divided Line</U></B></U></A></div> <div> From the writings of Plato's <I><B>The Republic</B></I>, Book 6.</div> <bR> <div> <A HREF="http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/GREECE/APOLOGY.HTM" TARGET="_top" TITLE="http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/GREECE/APOLOGY.H"><U><B><U>Plato: The Apology of Socrates</U></B></U></A></div> <bR> <div> <A HREF="http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/GREECE/DEMOC.HTM" TARGET="_top" TITLE="http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/GREECE/DEMOC.HTM"><U><B><U>Plato: The Character of Democracy</U></B></U></A></div> <div> From the writings of Plato's <I><B>The Republic</B></I>, Book 8</div> <bR> <div> <A HREF="http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/GREECE/SOCRATES.HTM" TARGET="_top" TITLE="http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/GREECE/SOCRATES."><U><B><U>Socrates</U></B></U></A></div> <div> On the contributions of Socrates.</div> <bR> <div> <A HREF="http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/GREECE/HERAC.HTM" TARGET="_top" TITLE="http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/GREECE/HERAC.HTM"><U><B><U>Heraclitus</U></B></U></A></div> <div> On the life and works of Heraclitus.</div> <bR> <div> <A HREF="http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1625jonson-bacon.html" TARGET="_top" TITLE="http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1625j"><U><B><U>On Francis Bacon</U></B></U></A></div> <div> A historical analysis of Francis Bacon.</div> <bR> <div> <B><U>Sir </U></B><A HREF="http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/bacon-aphor.html" TARGET="_top" TITLE="http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/bacon"><U><B><U>Francis Bacon-First Book of Aphorisms</U></B></U></A></div> <bR> <div> <A HREF="http://www.sirbacon.org" TARGET="_top" TITLE="http://www.sirbacon.org"><U><B><U>Sir Francis Bacon's New Advancement of Learning</U></B></U></A></div> <div> An extensive site on the life and work of Bacon, including the belief that he was the son of</div> <div> Queen Elizabeth I and speculated author of Shakespeare's writings.</div> <bR> <div> <A HREF="http://history.hanover.edu/texts/Bacon/novorg.html" TARGET="_top" TITLE="http://history.hanover.edu/texts/Bacon/n"><U><B><U>Sir </U></B></U></A><A HREF="http://history.hanover.edu/texts/Bacon/novorg.html" TARGET="_top" TITLE="http://history.hanover.edu/texts/Bacon/n"><U><B><U>Francis Bacon-Preface to the Novum Organum</U></B></U></A></div> <div> Bacon's work on true suggestions for the interpretation of nature.</div> <bR> <div> <B><U>Sir </U></B><A HREF="http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1627bacon-atlantis.html" TARGET="_top" TITLE="http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1627b"><U><B><U>Francis Bacon-The New Atlantis</U></B></U></A></div> <div> Bacon's treatise on an ideal commonwealth.</div> <bR> <div> <A HREF="http://galton.org" TARGET="_top" TITLE="http://galton.org"><U><B><U>Sir Francis Galton</U></B></U></A></div> <div> Developed notions about hereditary genius.</div> <bR> <div> <A HREF="http://www.levity.com/alchemy/texts.html" TARGET="_top" TITLE="http://www.levity.com/alchemy/texts.html"><U><B><U>The Alchemy Web Site</U></B></U></A></div> <div> Read about the alchemical work of Francis Bacon and others.</div> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <div>  <iframe src="http://rcm.amazon.com/e/cm?t=kingspsycholo-20&o=1&p=20&l=ur1&category=home&banner=046QZN7HP2KFGC3R1E82&f=ifr&f=ifr" width="120" height="90" scrolling="no" border="0" style="border:none;" frameborder="0"></iframe>  </div> <bR> <bR> <div> <B> <a href="http://www.the-science-lab.com/Museums/">Museums resources</a> - directory of Museums related websites.<br>  </B></div> <bR> </td> </tr></table></body>